7 From Empire to Emperors

Cicero versus Verres
In 70 BC Cicero took on a high profile case against Gaius Verres, governor of Sicily. He was trying to get compensation for the systematic theft and depredations of the defendant in his official role. The notorious case ended with Verres’ self-imposed exile to Marseille, having seen how badly he was losing the case. This was just one of the controversies about Roman rule overseas. The nature of Roman power and Roman’s assumptions about their relationship to the world they now dominated had moved from an empire of obedience to an empire of annexation.

Gaius Gracchus had passed wide ranging legislation to root out corruption and abuses of the system, and it clearly showed that there were those in Rome who were concerned about the abuses. The senate’s incompetence and greed in overseeing the provinces came up with Sallust asking hard questions about their incompetence in governing. The senate was seen as an old boys network not up to the challenge of the new realities.  

One of the “new men” that so many saw as an answer, was Gaius Marius. Marius was sent to Africa to deal with some upstarts, but he enrolled anyone he could find in the army, rather than those from landed families. These new legions were promised land after their service. But where would that land come from? It turned the soldiers into loyal followers of their commanders, or whoever was promising them the best package, rather than loyal servants of Rome. But this change in attitude saw popular assemblies regularly voting vast resources to those they thought would best defend them, or expand the empire. They began to vote autocrats into power.

Pompey the Great
In 66 BC, Cicero addressed the public pushing for Pompey to be given vast powers to subdue Mithradates. He pointed to Pompey’s success the year prior clearing the pirates from Italy’s waters. He was essentially arguing that new problems called for new solutions. As the empire had expanded, Rome’s government had not kept up. It’s style was still to limit power and control through checks and balances- which hindered officials from getting stuff done. What Rome needed now was the best general, with lengthy command, over the whole of the affected area, and with the resources needed to accomplish the job.

The first emperor
Pompey could lay claim to being the first emperor. The honors he accepted and claimed were on a completely different and greater scale than before… at least in Rome. The only thing that stopped Pompey was a rival- Julius Caesar.

The Gang of Three
In 60 BC, Pompey was frustrated the Senate was dragging his eastern settlement out. Marcus Licinius Crassus, the recently returned general who had defeated Spartacus, was annoyed his case was being slow-walked through. Julius Caesar was hoping to get elected consul and secure a lucrative military command. Mutual support seemed the best way for them to get what they wanted, so they teamed up to pool their resources. Caesar was elected and he pushed through programs of the other two. Crassus was defeated and lost his life fighting the Parthians in modern Iran.  

But there were increasing breakdowns in public life, with more political violence occurring. In 52 BC, Pompey was elected sole consul. He was also granted the power to settle the uncertainty in the streets, which he did within a few months.  

In 58 BC, Caesar had left for a military campaign in Gaul. He had military ambitions beyond what had been seen to date, and he conquered more land for Rome than Pompey had in the east. It was a particularly brutal and bloodthirsty campaign and shocked even Roman sensibilities. Some suggested he even be prosecuted back home. There was also a question of what he would do with the power and wealth he accumulated while in Gaul. Caesar was in charge of 40,000 troops. Would he invade Italy as Sulla and Pompey had done?

IN 50 BC, the Senate voted in an overwhelming majority that both Pompey and Caesar should give up their posts and Caesar should return home. He crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC and 4 years of civil war ensued. Between battles fought in Africa and Spain, Caesar was rarely in Rome. He fought against Pompey, his old ally, but now rival, for control of Italy. Pompey was eventually beheaded as he tried to land ashore by a local leader who thought he could earn some points with Caesar. It backfired and Caesar supported the leader’s rival- Queen Cleopatra. Cleopatra’s interests were with Caesar at this point and they had an open affair, and, if Cleopatra is to be believed, a son.  

The Ides of March
Julius Caesar was killed on 15 March 44 BC. This has been framed as the template of principled assassination in order to preserve liberty ever since. But looking back, it was just the latest in a series of murders of powerful politicians. Julius Caesar had initiated a vast series of reforms. He updated the Calendar. He launched a large number of overseas colonies to resettle Rome’s poor elsewhere. He extended Roman citizenship to the north of Italy, and at least Latin status to Sicily. He instituted vast reforms in Roman government. These reforms became a takeover of Rome’s democratic processes, and it smacked of him trying to become king. He seemed to not be taking the elected offices of the Roman republic seriously. Even his most famous virtue, mercy, was the virtue of a king. Only those with the power to do otherwise can exercise mercy.

So the assassins saw themselves as guarding liberty and Republican values. They told everyone the Roman people had been liberated. But getting rid of a tyrant turned out not to be the same thing as getting rid of tyranny.